The bachelor’s degree in English language teaching program includes courses that fall into four separate strands: English skills development (i.e., reading, writing, listening, speaking, vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation); teaching methodology (i.e., the theory of learning); applied linguistics (i.e., how languages are learned); and teaching practicum. Three out of the four courses I teach fall under the English skills development strand while the other - Discourse Analysis - under the applied linguistics strand.

Regarding updates to the syllabus, GenAI is explicitly stated in the content objectives for each unit and also throughout the methodology, teaching resources, assessment, and references sections. As an example, one unit objective for discourse analysis states,

Students will analyze how grammatical and lexical choices construct cohesion, coherence, stance, and interpersonal meaning within extended discourse and use GenAI as a critical friend to evaluate the clarity, register, and accuracy of their independently completed analyses through a documented revision trail.

In the same unit, contents mention the following as it relates to AI Practice:

AI Practice (level 3):

AI as Critical Friend: Students draft an initial analysis diagramming thematic progression in a text. They then feed their analysis into an AI to act as an editor or critical friend to check for academic clarity, hedging, and register.

Revision Trail: Assessment mandates an annotated revision trail. Students must submit their original draft alongside the AI-assisted version, featuring tracked changes and commentary explaining their pedagogical rationale for accepting or rejecting the AI’s suggestions.

The language used throughout the syllabus to make GenAI use more explicit (e.g., “level 3”, “critical friend”, etc.) comes from a GenAI Assessment Scale for BA in English language teaching (ELT) programs. Gemini Pro was used to generate this document and remains as is - no additional modifications were made. A deep research prompt was used to find more information about the AI Assessment Scale (AIAS) to get options for adapting the scale to the different types of courses offered in our BA program in ELT.

The Discourse Analysis course, falling under the applied linguistics strand of the BA, adheres more to the GenAI Assessment Scale for English for Academic Purposes (EAP) subjects. Level three of the five-point scale reads as follows:

Level 3: AI as editor + critical friend (clarity, cohesion, hedging, register). Require a revision train + academic integrity statement (no fabricated references; verify all claims).

When implementing this unit, criteria for completing learning outcomes will include students completing an AI Appendix to their work to make explicit how AI was used throughout their personal workflow. For coming up with an AI Appendix, I used Gemini Pro to generate the Student GenAI Collaboration Appendices document, which has not been modified. One of my last pending items is to divide up the document and modify it as necessary for each of my courses.

Currently, there is nothing in place at the university level when it comes to assessment scales and policies related to AI use, but it’s coming. Meanwhile, I plan to learn what I can this semester, share my thoughts and experiences, and learn from what others are doing in this space. My hunch though is that I will essentially be applying Kleon’s (2014), Show your Work! to my students, which takes the term, “process over product” to a new level.

Curious what others think…

1. What has worked for you when it comes to working with learners using AI in the class?

2. What terminology do you use for what goes into an AI appendix where students reveal their process and AI use: revision trail, declaration of use, GenAI use declaration, AI acknowledgement, etc.?

3. What has not worked? Why?

4. How much of what you do is rooted in institutional policy vs. personal choice?

5. How do professional learning communities where you work function? Are they helpful?

6. Are there best practices that you employ that help you anticipate where educational systems and the use of AI are going in the future?

This document summarizes key instructions and guidelines provided for the completion of the first draft of the thesis paper and preparation for the mock presentations. The sources emphasize adherence to formatting requirements (APA 7th edition), content guidelines for specific sections (Abstract, Introduction, Literature Review, Method, Results/Discussion, Conclusion, Appendices, References), and preparation strategies for the mock presentations, including content, delivery, and technical aspects. Key themes include attention to detail in formatting, summarizing the paper effectively, and practicing delivery and anticipating questions for the presentation.

Key Themes and Ideas:

• Hard Copy Draft Review: Students are required to submit a hard copy of their first completed draft. A quick self-review in groups is encouraged, focusing on specific formatting elements.

• Headings: Check that all headings (except in the method section) have 6 to 12 words. Main words should be capitalized. No punctuation should be at the end of any heading. Method section headings (Participants, Instruments, Procedure, Data Analysis) can be shorter.

• Page Breaks: Specific pages should be on their own page: Title page, Authorization page, Abstract, Table of Contents, Figures/Tables (if applicable), and each Appendix. The body of the paper (Literature Review through the Conclusion paragraph) should have no page breaks.

• Spacing: The entire paper should be double-spaced, with no extra space between paragraphs, headings, and text. References are an exception, with single spacing within the reference and double spacing between references.

• Indentation: Each paragraph, except for the Abstract, should have a half-inch indentation.

• Paragraph Count: The Abstract, Participants, Instruments, Procedure, and Data Analysis sections should each consist of only one paragraph. The final paragraph of the paper is considered the Conclusion paragraph and does not require a separate "Conclusion" heading.

• Appendix Formatting: Each appendix should start on a new page with a Level 1 heading (e.g., "Appendix A") at the very top line, followed by a Level 2 heading for the appendix title.

• Title Recommendations: The instructor suggests using ChatGPT to generate title ideas now that the paper is mostly complete.

• If the title is longer than one line, force a return to distribute words more or less equally across two lines.

• Single-space the title.

• Improving Writing (Verb Usage): Students are encouraged to review their paper for overuse of the verbs "to have," "to be," and "to make" (as lexical verbs). While not forbidden, excessive use may indicate areas for improvement by substituting more dynamic verbs, often converting nouns into verbs. The instructor provides an example of how to rewrite sentences to be more concise and dynamic.

• Mock Presentation Structure and Timing: The mock presentation is 20 minutes long with a 10-minute Q&A. The entire class scheduled for a specific day is expected to observe all presentations on that day.

• Suggested Slide Order: Title slide, Problem and Purpose, Literature Review (multiple slides), Method, Results and Discussion (multiple slides), Conclusions, Thank You.

• Approximate Timing: Problem and Purpose (30 seconds to 1 minute), Literature Review (approximately 8 minutes), Method (approximately 2 minutes), Results and Discussion (approximately 9-10 minutes).

• Presentation Content: Present only the essential information that directly relates to the research questions and analyzed data. Do not attempt to present everything from the written paper due to time constraints.

• Mock Presentation Delivery and Technical Aspects:

• Preparation: Practice the presentation, ideally recording oneself and timing each section. Consider practicing in front of someone.

• Slides: Slides are meant to support the speaker, not to be read directly. They should function as "big note cards" with key points or ideas. Each slide should focus on one main point and include a heading. Avoid paragraphs and excessive text on slides.

• Visuals: Make slides visually appealing but not distracting. Use visuals like graphs, charts, tables, and images from the paper, simplifying or modifying them for the presentation. Use no more than three different font styles and sizes, and choose easy-to-read fonts. Avoid animations and complex color schemes that might reduce contrast.

• Technology: Coordinate with classmates to use one computer for presentations on a given day. Test equipment beforehand, turn off automatic updates, and ensure the computer is fully charged and doesn't go to sleep. Have a backup of the presentation file (e.g., on a USB drive in addition to the computer).

• Delivery: Focus on the message, not personal nervousness. Maintain eye contact with the audience, specifically the examiners during the final defense, distributing attention among them. Bring a water bottle.

• Anticipate Questions: Prepare for potential questions, including definitions of key terms used in the study.

• Final Oral Defense Considerations:

• Similar guidelines to the mock presentation, but attendance is by invitation only (family, friends, classmates).

• Coordinate bringing refreshments for the examiners.

• Arrive at least 30 minutes early with guests.

• Maintain eye contact, especially with examiners.

• No microphone is expected to be needed; speak loudly and project.

• Present from the stage or on the floor in front of the stage, based on comfort.

• Paper Submission: Submit three hard copies of the first completed draft. Confirm that the version in Microsoft Teams is the same as the hard copy. The final paper (Word document and three hard copies) is due officially one week before the scheduled presentation.

Quotes:

• "Make sure that the headings all of the headings have 6 to 12 words except for the headings in the method section."

• "Check each heading to make sure that the main words are capitalized."

• "Finally, check at the end of each heading. No punctuation, no period, no colon, no. Nothing."

• "The body of the paper, there are no page brakes."

• "Make sure each appendix has a page break and appears at the very top line."

• "Make sure that each paragraph with the exception of the abstract has a half of an inch indentation."

• "Look at the abstracts. Each section of the method and your conclusion to make sure you only have one paragraph."

• "Today, I'm going to receive your uh hard copies of your first completed draft. This is an important milestone, right?"

• "Today I want to spend just a few minutes very quickly all of us taking a look at your document, making a few notes very very quick."

• "I would recommend trying and experimenting with chatt to give you some ideas of titles now that your paper has been completed."

• "If your title extends longer than one line... force a return... single space the title."

• "I want you to see how many times you're using three birds. to have, to be, to make."

• "The problem in general is when we're using a bunch of times these verbs voice passive and there is there are. The problem is we have a lot of nouns that could be converted to a verb."

• "We need to be prepared on Monday, well, whenever you're presenting, for a 20 minute presentation with a 10 minute question and answer."

• "Remember your presentation is there to support what you are saying, not vice versa."

• "Think of the the PowerPoint presentation the slides as big cards note cards."

• "We don't want any distractions, right? It's a distraction when you're speaking and somebody's coming in and out."

• "Maintain eye contact... try to connect to those examiners because they're the ones that are going to give you the grades."

Source 2: Excerpts from "TS Recap 15.mp4"

This source provides a recap of Week 15 for Thesis Seminar, focusing on the requirements for the first completed draft of the thesis paper due the same week.

Key Themes and Ideas:

• First Completed Draft Requirements: The first completed draft is due as a hard copy. Students should refer to the course guidelines for detailed requirements, including approximate word counts.

• Introduction Paragraph: Should start with a hook, provide context for the problem, and end with the thesis statement.

• Transitional Paragraph: Should restate the thesis statement, summarize the problem, introduce the research questions, and conclude with a closing statement.

• Conclusion Paragraph (End of Results and Discussion): Approximately 250 words. Should begin by restating and rewording the thesis statement, discuss study limitations and significance, suggest future research, and end with a closing statement.

• Abstract: Should be on its own page, follow the provided template, and be one paragraph of approximately 250 words. It should summarize the entire paper: problem, method (participants, data collection, analysis), findings, and conclusions/implications. It serves as a snapshot for readers to decide if they want to read the full paper.

• Formatting (Reinforced):Title: 6 to 12 words.

• Spacing: Double-spaced throughout the paper (except references).

• Alignment: Left-justified.

• Indentation: 0.5-inch indentation for all paragraphs except the Abstract.

• References: Adhere to APA 7th edition. Use a hanging indent (French indentation). Single-space within each reference and double-space between references.

• Appendices: Each appendix on a new page with a Level 1 heading ("Appendix A," etc.) and a Level 2 heading for the title. Use the specified font styles (Level 1 APA, Level 2 APA, etc.) for headings.

• Table of Contents: Should be updatable based on correctly formatted headings.

• Approximate Word Counts: Provides word count guidelines for major sections: Literature Review (approx. 2250 words), Results and Discussion (approx. 2250 words), Method (approx. 500 words, divided among Participants, Instruments and Procedure, Data Analysis).

Quotes:

• "This week, we need to finish our first draft. And today, I want to talk about what should be included in your completed first draft. Uh a hard copy that you're to turn in by noon this Thursday, May 22nd, 2025."

• "Make sure that you've uh reviewed the course guidelines that are available in Microsoft Teams... it includes a section with approximate word counts."

• "Your paper should include an introductory or an introduction paragraph... make sure that the uh the introduction paragraph begins with a hook. It offers the context of the problem and it concludes by stating your thesis statement."

• "The conclusion paragraph to end your results and discussion section should be approximately 250 words and begin again with your thesis statement restated and rewarded."

• "After restating your thesis statement, you can talk about um any limitations that you find... include the significance of your study and also future research."

• "The abstract should be on its own page... Should be one paragraph, approximately 250 words, and should state basically summarize uh your whole paper."

• "Think of the abstract as a kind of a snapshot of your whole paper."

• "Make sure you have a title of your paper, 6 to 12 words."

• "Your whole paper should be double spaced, left justified."

• "All paragraphs should have a uh 0.5 in indentation with the exception of the abstract."

• "Double check your list of references making sure that they adhere to APA 7th edition."

• "Make sure you using a French indentation or a uh a hanging indent."

• "Each appendix should have a level one heading that states which appendix it is... And then as a level two, I would include the title of the of the appendix."

Conclusion:

Both sources provide essential guidance for completing the thesis paper draft and preparing for the mock presentations. The first source delves deeply into specific formatting checks and detailed presentation strategies, while the second source provides a concise overview of the key components and formatting requirements for the written draft. Students are strongly encouraged to meticulously review their drafts against the provided guidelines, practice their presentations thoroughly, and anticipate questions to ensure a successful mock presentation and final defense. Attention to detail in both the written document and the presentation delivery is paramount.

Recap for Week 15

Configuring tables and figures

Here is a brief that summarizes the main themes and important ideas discussed in the provided sources: an audio recording ("Data Analysis_042025.mp3") of a thesis seminar session and excerpts from a document titled "Making Sense of Stories: Analyzing Qualitative Data in ELT Teacher Training." The primary focus is on data analysis techniques, particularly qualitative coding, triangulation, and the potential for incorporating quantitative elements.

I. Key Themes and Important Ideas:

A. Importance of Completing Data Collection Before Analysis:

• The seminar leader emphasizes that data analysis should only begin after all data collection is complete. "Today's discussion is about data analysis. All of you have collected or very close to having completed uh collecting all of your data and this is an important requirement to continue the process of data analysis... If you are still trying to collect some information, know that what we talk about today uh you need to wait."

• Starting analysis prematurely, before all data is gathered, is considered a "mistake."

B. Understanding the Purpose of Data Analysis:

• Data analysis is crucial for understanding the collected data and determining what is relevant and significant to report in the results and discussion sections of the thesis.

• It helps researchers move from a large amount of raw data to focused and insightful findings. "Think of it like this. All of you are at this point, you've collected, if not all, most of your data. So you have all this data that you've collected... Ahora con todo esta información which data is not relevant... So you're going to then include this circle represents now only the information that relates to your research questions... Now from your data analysis... you're going to then figure out ok of all this information that now is relevant to my study, what is worth What is including in mys discussion?"

• Not all relevant data needs to be reported; the analysis helps identify the most "important, surprising, insightful, interesting" findings.

C. The Concept and Importance of Triangulation:

• Triangulation involves bringing together different data sources (e.g., interviews, observations, documents) to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the research topic.

• It allows for comparison between what participants say they do/believe, what they actually do (observed), and their planning/reflection processes. "Think of this if it helps to look at it like this. Your um your information here is allowing you to compare different things. For example, what people say they do or believe... What do they actually do? Well, to know that, what do we have to do? Have to observe."

• The seminar leader stresses the importance of having sufficient data to triangulate and encourages participants to address any concerns about this. "If anybody today right now has concerns about whether or not you have the types of data to allow you to triangulate, we need to have a discussion today."

• The "Making Sense of Stories" document provides specific examples of triangulation in ELT teacher training research, such as comparing planned instructions in lesson plans with delivered instructions observed in the classroom. "Compare the planned instructions (document) with the delivered instructions (observation). Were planned ICQs actually used?"

D. Introduction to Qualitative Coding:

• Qualitative coding is defined as a systematic process of labeling and organizing segments of text data (transcriptions, observation notes, documents) to identify patterns, themes, and concepts relevant to the research questions. "The process of coding is the process of labeling text. Coding is a systematic way to make sense of rich, complex, and often messy reality of language."

• All audio and video data must be transcribed into text before coding. Microsoft Word Online's transcription feature is suggested as a tool.

• The coding process involves identifying text segments (words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs) that relate to the research questions and assigning specific labels or "codes" to them. "You're coding things that relate to your research questions... Porque estamos en este proceso distinguendo, tenemos que distinguir qué sirve para nuestro estudio, qué no sirve, vamos a dejarlo fuera."

E. Levels of Qualitative Coding:

• The seminar introduces a three-level inductive coding approach:

• Level One (Initial Codes): Creating very specific labels directly from the text, the literature review, or using in vivo codes (participant's exact words). "The first you create... the code, the label comes from your literature review... Using a label a code directly. If anx dijo eso... Tú puedes seleccionar esta frase. ¿Qué lebo puedes poner? Anxious, anxiety."

• Level Two (Categories): Grouping the initial, specific codes into broader, more conceptual categories. "When we finish, you should have a long list of codes. And so I would do it in something like Excel... Les Segundo nivel es ordenar. Este grupo de códigos initial codes va aquí y voy a crear otra código. Puede ser como en category que representen todos sus códigos que son más específicos."

• Level Three (Themes): Grouping the categories into overarching themes that provide a higher level of understanding and relate directly to the research questions. "Level three, yo voy a poner este themes. Ya vamos a tener categorías, ¿verdad? Cada categoría va a tener sus initial codes. ¿Qué hicimos? ¿Qué hacemos para este nivel level? Categoriz group these categories into these yes."

• The "Making Sense of Stories" document also describes a similar iterative coding process, including immersion, initial/open coding, developing a codebook, focused/axial coding, and identifying themes/selective coding.

F. The Codebook:

• The outcome of the coding process is a codebook, which is a crucial part of the methodology section of the thesis.

• The codebook will list all the codes used, potentially organized by categories and themes, and may include definitions and examples. "Cuando terminen, you're going to have a codebook... you're going to include your codebook that's going to include all of the codes that you used and it's going to be an outline como esema in word. categories initial codes."

• The methodology section will describe the coding process and reference the codebook in the appendix.

G. Incorporating Frequencies and Duration (Quantitative Elements):

• The seminar leader emphasizes that qualitative data can be converted into quantitative data (frequencies, duration) for analysis. "How many of you think you'll need to analyze because we can convert qualitative information into quantitative information..."

• This involves counting the occurrences of specific codes or measuring the length of certain events (e.g., teacher-student exchanges, use of relaxation techniques).

• Examples discussed include tracking the frequency of positive/negative reinforcement, scaffolding, relaxation techniques, and the duration of collaborative work or interactions with specific students.

• The "Making Sense of Stories" document provides detailed examples of how to quantify qualitative data by defining observable behaviors, developing coding rules, and using presence/absence or frequency counts in spreadsheets.

H. Relationship Between Analysis and Reporting:

• The analysis process directly informs what will be reported in the results and discussion sections. "We don't know what to write in the results and discussion until we understand the data. To understand the data, we need to analyze the data."

• The evidence presented in the results section will often consist of direct quotes from the data that have been coded.

• The analysis (coding, identifying themes, considering frequencies) helps determine the structure and content of the results and discussion.

I. Openness to Modifying Research Questions:

• Based on the initial findings during data analysis, it may be necessary to slightly modify the research questions to better align with the emerging answers. "It's very common at this point as you are analyzing your data and when you come back on May 5th that in some cases we may need to modify slightly your research question."

• However, any modifications should remain within the scope of the literature review.

J. Timeline and Expectations:

• Participants are expected to begin the data analysis process (coding, considering frequencies) during the break before the next group session on May 5th.

• This analysis is considered a crucial step that will significantly impact the quality of the thesis.

• The final thesis paper is due on May 22nd, followed by mock presentations starting on May 26th and oral defenses.

K. Utilizing Large Language Models (LLMs) as Research Assistants:

• The "Making Sense of Stories" document introduces the potential of using LLMs to assist with qualitative data analysis.

• LLMs can help with generating initial coding ideas, applying preliminary coding schemes, calculating frequencies of codes, and analyzing Likert scale questionnaires.

• However, it is strongly emphasized that researchers must critically assess, validate, and cross-reference the output from LLMs to avoid bias and inaccuracies. LLMs should be seen as tools for augmentation, not replacements for rigorous methodological practices.

II. Notable Quotes:

• "Today's discussion is about data analysis. All of you have collected or very close to having completed uh collecting all of your data and this is an important requirement to continue the process of data analysis..."

• "Please don't make that mistake. Okay. Today what we're going to be talking about is a process of analyzing qualitative information, but it's also a way to for you to start thinking about what you're going to report."

• "This concept of triangulation is going to be very important in today's discussion for data analysis. Think of this if it helps to look at it like this. Your um your information here is allowing you to compare different things."

• "Qualitative coding is the process of systematically identifying, labeling, and organizing segments of your data to discover patterns, themes, concepts, and relationships relevant to your research questions."

• "Coding is simply labeling. It's giving a name to the text that you have."

• "Repito, los códigos tien que ser super específico. Si comenzamos demasiado general, we don't have any place to go if we start to general."

• "All qualitative can be converted to quantitative data and vice versa. When conducting qualitative data, you might find it useful to convert data to quantitative data and then analyze it."

• "Correlation does NOT imply causation!"

III. Implications for Thesis Work:

• Participants need to prioritize transcribing their audio/video data and engaging in the initial levels of qualitative coding.

• They should actively think about how triangulation will be achieved in their studies using their collected data sources.

• Considering potential quantitative analysis (frequencies, duration) can add another layer of insight to their findings.

• Developing a detailed and well-defined codebook is essential for a rigorous and transparent analysis process.

• Researchers should remain flexible and open to refining their research questions based on the initial insights from the data analysis.

• While LLMs can be helpful tools, they should be used judiciously and with critical evaluation.

This briefing document provides a comprehensive overview of the key aspects of data analysis discussed in the provided sources, highlighting the importance of systematic qualitative methods and the potential for integrating quantitative elements in ELT teacher training research. Participants are encouraged to begin their analysis promptly and seek clarification on any doubts.

Review

Quiz

1. According to the speaker, what is the primary focus of today's session? Why is it being addressed at this particular point in the semester?

2. Explain the significance of triangulation in qualitative data analysis as described in the audio. Provide an example of how triangulation could be applied using different data sources mentioned.

3. Summarize the three levels of coding for qualitative data analysis discussed in the audio. What is the purpose of moving through these levels?

4. Describe what a codebook is and when it should be developed in the data analysis process. What key information does it contain?

5. Explain the difference between creating codes and using in vivo codes. Provide an example of each based on the provided material.

6. Why does the speaker emphasize the importance of transcribing all audio and video data to text before beginning the coding process?

7. What is the speaker's advice regarding modifying research questions at this stage of the thesis process? What important caveat does they mention?

8. Describe at least three examples from the audio of how qualitative data can be converted and analyzed using frequencies or duration.

9. According to the speaker, what constitutes the "results and discussion" section of the thesis paper in relation to the analyzed data? How does this differ from the literature review?

10. What reminders were given regarding the assessment components and attendance policy for the thesis seminar?

Quiz Answer Key

1. The primary focus of today's session is data analysis, specifically for qualitative information. This is being addressed now because students have either completed or are very close to completing their data collection, which is a necessary prerequisite for starting the analysis process.

2. Triangulation is the process of bringing together and comparing information from different data sources (e.g., interviews, observations, documents) to gain a more nuanced and credible understanding of the research topic. For example, a researcher might compare a teacher's stated beliefs about differentiated instruction in an interview with their observed teaching practices and relevant lesson plans to see if these different sources of information align.

3. The three levels of coding are: (1) Initial/Level One Coding, which involves assigning specific labels or codes to segments of text; (2) Level Two Coding, where initial codes are grouped into broader categories; and (3) Level Three Coding, where categories are further grouped into overarching themes. The purpose of moving through these levels is to move from specific data points to more general analytical insights and patterns.

4. A codebook is a central document that is developed as the researcher codes their data. It lists all the codes being used, provides a clear definition for each code, outlines inclusion and exclusion criteria for applying the code, and often includes example snippets from the data that illustrate the code. It ensures consistency in the coding process.

5. Creating codes involves the researcher developing labels for segments of text based on their understanding of the data and research questions, potentially drawing from the literature review. Using in vivo codes involves using the exact words or phrases spoken by the participants as the codes themselves. For example, in the teacher interview snippet, "grammar mistake" is an in vivo code, while "delayed correction" is a created code.

6. The speaker emphasizes transcribing all audio and video data to text because the process of coding, which involves identifying and labeling segments of data, is primarily applied to text. Therefore, to analyze non-textual data in this way, it must first be converted into a textual format.

7. The speaker advises students to be open to slightly modifying their research questions based on the initial findings from the data analysis. However, they caution that any modifications should still align with the original literature review and the overall purpose of the research.

8. Examples of converting qualitative data to quantitative for analysis include: tracking the frequency of positive and negative reinforcement used by a teacher during a lesson; measuring the duration of student-teacher interactions; and counting the number of times a specific vocabulary strategy is implemented in a classroom.

9. The "results and discussion" section of the thesis paper primarily consists of the analyzed data, presented as evidence (results), and the researcher's interpretation and explanation of these findings in relation to the research questions and existing literature (discussion). This differs from the literature review, which presents findings from previous studies to provide context for the current research.

10. The speaker reminded students that their tutoring grade only makes up 40% of their final thesis seminar grade, with the oral defense and written thesis evaluation contributing the remaining 60%. They also reiterated the attendance policy, where missing a tutoring session equates to five absences, and exceeding three missed sessions may require taking an extraordinary exam.

Essay Format Questions

1. Discuss the role of data analysis as a crucial bridge between data collection and the reporting of findings in qualitative research. Using examples from the provided audio, explain why skipping the data analysis stage can lead to significant challenges in the thesis writing process.

2. Critically evaluate the concept of triangulation in qualitative research, drawing on the examples and explanations provided in the sources. Discuss the strengths and potential limitations of using multiple data sources to enhance the credibility and depth of research findings in ELT teacher training.

3. Explain the three-level coding process for qualitative data analysis presented in the audio, emphasizing the importance of specificity in initial coding and the subsequent development of categories and themes. How does this systematic approach contribute to making sense of complex qualitative data?

4. Considering the information provided on analyzing frequencies and duration in qualitative data, discuss the value of incorporating quantitative elements into a primarily qualitative study. Provide specific examples from the audio of how this mixed-methods approach can enrich the analysis and provide additional insights in ELT research.

5. Reflect on the advice given regarding the iterative nature of qualitative research, including the potential need to modify research questions after initial data analysis. Discuss the importance of maintaining an open mind and flexibility throughout the research process while ensuring alignment with the existing literature review and overall research focus.

Glossary of Key Terms

• Coding (Qualitative): The process of systematically identifying, labeling, and organizing segments of qualitative data (text, audio transcripts, observation notes) to discover patterns, themes, concepts, and relationships relevant to the research questions.

• Triangulation: The use of multiple data sources, methods, investigators, or theories to provide a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of a research phenomenon, enhancing the credibility and validity of the findings.

• Codebook: A central document that lists all the codes used in a qualitative study, along with their definitions, inclusion and exclusion criteria, and sometimes example data excerpts. It serves as a guide for consistent coding.

• In Vivo Code: A type of code that uses the exact words or phrases spoken by the participants as the label for a segment of data.

• Initial Coding (Open Coding/Level One Coding): The first stage of qualitative data analysis where researchers go through the data and assign preliminary, descriptive codes to segments of text, often staying close to the data itself.

• Focused Coding (Axial Coding/Level Two Coding): A later stage of qualitative data analysis where initial codes are reviewed, refined, combined, and grouped into broader categories based on their relationships and patterns.

• Thematic Analysis (Selective Coding/Level Three Coding): The process of identifying overarching themes or central ideas that emerge from the categories developed during focused coding, which help to answer the research questions.

• Frequency Analysis: A method of quantitative data analysis that involves counting how often specific codes, behaviors, or events occur within the data.

• Duration Analysis: A method of quantitative data analysis that involves measuring the length of time that specific events or interactions last within the data.

• Transcription: The process of converting audio or video recordings into written text.

• Likert Scale: A psychometric scale commonly involved in research that employs questionnaires. It is the most widely used approach to scaling responses in survey research, such that the term (or equivalently likert-type scale) is often used interchangeably with rating scale, although there are other types of rating scales.

• Inductive Approach: A research approach that starts with specific observations and data, then moves towards identifying broader patterns, themes, and theories. The coding process described is largely inductive.

• Deductive Approach: A research approach that starts with a general theory or hypothesis and then gathers data to test or confirm it.

• Research Question: A specific inquiry that the research aims to answer. It guides the data collection and analysis processes.

• Literature Review: A comprehensive summary and analysis of existing scholarly literature relevant to the research topic, providing context and identifying gaps in knowledge.

• Methodology: The section of a research paper that describes the methods used to collect and analyze data. The coding process and codebook would be described in this section.

• Results and Discussion: The section of a research paper where the findings of the data analysis are presented (results) and interpreted in relation to the research questions and existing literature (discussion).

• Assessment (Thesis Seminar): The evaluation of a student's work in the thesis seminar, which includes the tutor's grading (40%), the oral defense (20%), and the evaluation of the written thesis (40%).

• Oral Defense: A formal presentation of the completed thesis to a panel of examiners, who then ask questions about the research.

The tutoring sessions across the provided excerpts consistently focused on guiding students through the crucial data collection phase of their thesis research. Several overarching themes and pieces of advice emerged:

• Emphasis on Triangulation: A fundamental principle emphasized in almost every session was the importance of collecting data from multiple sources: observations, interviews, and documents [e.g., 28, 63, 166]. This triangulation is essential for robust and credible findings.

• Alignment with Research Questions and Literature Review: Students were repeatedly reminded to ensure that their data collection efforts were directly aligned with their specific research questions [e.g., 50, 63, 153] and grounded in their literature review [e.g., 75, 111, 160]. They were advised to revisit their literature reviews, identify key terms and concepts [e.g., 66, 111, 160], and use these to guide their observations and interview questions [e.g., 75, 114].

• Strategic Data Collection: The tutors stressed the need for a systematic approach to data collection. This involved planning and conducting focused interviews [e.g., 54, 114], taking detailed observation notes [e.g., 65, 71], and actively pursuing relevant documents [e.g., 28, 32, 63, 74, 166] such as lesson plans, syllabi, and student work.

• Iterative Process and Flexibility: Data collection was presented as an iterative process of collecting, analyzing, and adapting [e.g., 52, 171]. Students were encouraged to review their collected data regularly to identify gaps, refine interview questions, and adjust their observation focus. Flexibility and proactive problem-solving were also emphasized [e.g., 104, 173].

• Time Management and Deadlines: With the April 16th deadline for data collection approaching, effective time management and maximizing observation opportunities were consistently highlighted [e.g., 37, 104, 116, 159].

• Preparation for Analysis and Writing: While the primary focus was on data collection, the tutors also provided preliminary guidance on preparing for data analysis (e.g., considering coding) and starting to think about the structure of the method section [e.g., 147, 148] and future writing stages [e.g., 150].

• Utilizing Feedback and Resources: Students were directed to utilize the feedback provided during tutoring sessions [e.g., 129, 156], review recap videos [e.g., 38, 57, 138, 152, 174], and explore resources like Notebook LM for summarizing and gaining new perspectives on their work [e.g., 39, 57, 138, 152, 175].

• Importance of Appendix: Students were instructed to include blank copies of their research instruments (consent forms, interview guides, observation sheets) in the appendix of their thesis document [e.g., 75, 106, 118, 140, 161].

Insights for Proceeding Further During the Next Week (Concluding April 16, 2025):

Given that the data collection phase is nearing its end (April 16th), students should prioritize the following actions based on the recurring advice from their tutoring sessions:

• Finalize Data Collection: This is the last full week for collecting data before the suggested cut-off around April 11th or the firm deadline of April 16th. Students must maximize their remaining observation hours and conduct any planned final interviews [e.g., 37, 104, 159]. Proactive communication with teachers to schedule and confirm these sessions is crucial [e.g., 157, 173].

• Secure Outstanding Documents: Any pending documents (lesson plans, syllabi, worksheets, etc.) are vital for triangulation. Students should make a concerted effort to obtain these materials this week [e.g., 74, 126, 168], following up with teachers and school administrators as needed [e.g., 169, 173], while being mindful of their time and communication preferences.

• Review and Consolidate Collected Data: Students should dedicate time to review all the data they have gathered so far (observation notes, interview transcripts or notes, and documents) [e.g., 52, 170]. This review will help them identify any remaining gaps in their data, ensure they have sufficient information to address their research questions, and potentially refine their focus for any final data collection activities.

• Reflect on Alignment with Research Questions and Literature: As they review their data, students should actively reflect on how the collected information aligns with their research questions and the key concepts discussed in their literature review [e.g., 75, 160]. Noting these connections will be essential for the analysis phase. If they identify areas where the data seems inconsistent with their theoretical framework, they should make note of this for further exploration in their analysis.

• Organize and Prepare for Analysis: While formal coding might begin later, students can start organizing their data in a systematic way (e.g., by research question, by participant, by theme). Reviewing the resources on coding mentioned in some sessions [e.g., 22, 24, 158] might be beneficial to start thinking about potential analytical approaches.

• Finalize Appendix Items: Ensure that the appendix section of their thesis document includes blank copies of all the instruments used (informed consent, interview guides, observation sheets) in a clear and organized manner [e.g., 75, 106, 118, 140, 161].

• Utilize Available Feedback: Students should take the time to review any recent feedback received from their tutors, especially regarding writing quality and data collection strategies [e.g., 41, 129, 176]. Implementing relevant suggestions can improve their work and prepare them for the next stages.

• Prepare for the April 16th Whole Group Session: Keeping in mind that the April 16th session may focus on data analysis and potentially the method section [e.g., 22, 24, 117, 147, 158], students should come prepared with a good understanding of the data they have collected and any initial thoughts on how they might analyze it.

By focusing on these key actions in the final week of their primary data collection period, students can position themselves well for the subsequent stages of analysis and writing.

Writers being inconsistent with the fonts being used when writing an academic text (i.e., five-paragraph essay, literature review, thesis paper, etc.) This can happen when copying and pasting text from one Word document (usually with a different set of font styles and sizes) to another.

✅ Solution

Review the acceptable fonts that are possible according to APA, 7th edition.

• sans serif fonts such as 11-point Calibri, 11-point Arial, or 10-point Lucida Sans Unicode

• serif fonts such as 12-point Times New Roman, 11-point Georgia, or normal (10-point) Computer Modern (the default font for LaTeX) (American Psychological Association - APA).

Frequently Asked Questions about Thesis Seminar - Week 8 Recap

1. What should Thesis Seminar students be focused on as they move into week 9 (following March 24th, 2025)?

By this stage, students should be actively engaged in data collection across various methods, including gathering documents and content, conducting interviews, facilitating focus groups and stimulated recall sessions, and performing classroom observations with detailed field notes and recordings. A primary focus should be ensuring that the collected data directly addresses their research questions and identifying any gaps in the data that might require further collection through additional documents, interviews, or observations.

2. What resources are being provided to students to support their thesis work?

Students will receive links to two primary AI-powered resources: Notebook LM and a podcast. Notebook LM is designed to provide AI-generated feedback based on the student's literature review, tutoring session summaries, and recordings. The podcast features an AI-generated discussion about the student's study, offering an external perspective on their work. Additionally, students will receive documents outlining briefing information, a timeline, and proposed options for presenting their findings later in the thesis process.

3. How should students utilize the Notebook LM resource?

The left-hand column of Notebook LM contains the inputs, primarily the student's literature review, tutoring session summaries, and recordings. Students should focus on the right-hand column, which provides the AI-generated outputs, including the podcast link and potentially other feedback. While the middle column might contain a general review, it is not the primary area of focus. Students should critically engage with the AI-generated podcast to see how others are discussing their study, identify potential inaccuracies, and consider different perspectives on their work.

4. What is the purpose of the AI-generated podcast provided to students?

The podcast offers an AI-generated conversation about the student's thesis research. The goal is to provide students with an opportunity to hear their study discussed from an external perspective, which can help them reflect on their progress, identify potential strengths and weaknesses, and consider different interpretations of their work. Students are encouraged to listen critically, noting areas of agreement and disagreement with the AI-generated commentary.

5. Why are students being provided with information about presentation options at this stage of the thesis process?

While students are not yet ready to write their findings due to ongoing data collection and the need for in-depth analysis, thinking about potential presentation formats at this stage can be beneficial. It allows students to consider different ways to communicate their research later on and can subtly influence how they collect and analyze their data to best suit their chosen presentation style.

6. What should students keep in mind when conducting classroom observations and taking field notes?

During classroom observations, students should aim to record as much observable behavior as possible, focusing on what participants are saying and doing. The goal is to capture a comprehensive record of the classroom activities. Later, students will review their field notes alongside their recordings to analyze the information, understand its relevance to their research questions, and determine what further data collection might be necessary.

7. How important is the literature review at this stage of the thesis process?

The literature review remains highly important. Students should regularly revisit their literature review, paying attention to key terms and concepts. When observing classes, they should actively look for instances where these key terms and concepts are evident, as well as noting instances where they are not. All observations should be linked back to the theoretical framework established in the literature review, ensuring that the data collected is relevant to the existing body of knowledge. Students who have pending comments on their literature review should address them and notify their instructor when it is ready for another review.

8. What should students do if they encounter challenges or have questions during their data collection process?

Students are strongly encouraged to reach out to their instructor immediately if they encounter any roadblocks, uncertainties about the next steps, or unexpected events that might affect their research. They should not wait until their next scheduled tutoring session to address these issues. Prompt communication ensures timely support and guidance to keep their thesis work on track.

💡 Welcome to Grammar in Context II!

Class location: Mod. 2, Aula 1 and Grammar In Context II | General | Microsoft Teams

Class schedule: Monday-Friday, 1:00 PM - 2:00 PM

Instructor: Benjamin L. Stewart

Course Description

This practical subject focuses on developing the student's ability to use the grammatical structures of the English language according to context, promoting their communication skills. This subject runs concurrently with Listening and Speaking II, Reading II, Writing II and Integration of Skills through Culture II, and precedes all the subjects from first semester of the major. It also supports the subjects in the area of Development of Skills for Communication in English.

Course Objective

By the end of the course, the student will apply various grammatical structures of the English language according to the context to communicating effectively at a B1+ level of the CEFR with an attitude towards continuous learning, being proactive and positive.

Readings

Unit I

Week 1: Overcoming Daily Life Challenges

Week 2: Overcoming Daily Life Challenges

Week 3: Festivals and Celebrations

Week 4: Travel Experiences

Week 5: Health and Fitness

Week 6: Shopping and Money

Unit II

Week 7: Work and Education

Week 8:

Week 9:

Week 10:

Week 11:

Unit III

Week 12:

Week 13:

Week 14:

Week 15:

Week 16:

Units

Grammar in Context II Unit I

Grammar in Context II Unit II

Grammar in Context II Unit III

Methodology

The course methodology will be student-centered, as well as problem-solving, projects, and everyday situations in the English language in different authentic contexts. Students will be able to experience and reproduce the English language through authentic oral and written texts. These come from audios, videos, and readings (e.g., informal conversations, news, lectures, song lyrics, etc.) which they will review in individual, pair, or team work. The teacher's main role will be that of facilitator, while the student will be an active and responsible participant in their learning process. During the course, the development of learning strategies will be promoted through techniques such as debates, conversations, discussions, playful activities, analysis of texts and audios, using a variety of interactions, authentic materials, and ICTs.

Assessment

Weekly activities (assignments, quizzes, and TOEFL grammar exercises) - 55%

Grammar ePortfolio & reflection (Reviewed each unit) - 35%

CAADI Worksheets - 10%

Due January 17, 2025, March 10, 2025, March 31, 2025, May 5, 2025, May 26, 2025

Notes:

1. The minimum passing grade will be seven.

2. To be eligible to pass the course, attendance at least 80% of the sessions is required.

3. It is desirable that the participating teachers answer the course evaluation instrument, the link to which will be available on the educational platform starting January 23. This will allow the Department of Training and Academic Updating to have relevant information for the evaluation and continuous improvement of the course.

Orientation

To get started, review the following:

• Content will be published online using Capacities, which you may access either through your browser or through the Capacities app.

• Review Embracing one’s originality and process in academic writing: A guide for English language learners and ELT Cast 126: How to increase one’s originality score when writing an academic text to see my stance on self-expression and human-generated text. I always come from a place of support when assisting you find your original voice when it comes to self-expression through the written word.

• I often use codes when giving feedback on your writing and will often use these codes to refer to common errors made when writing an academic text: Writing error code list.

• Install Ámbito Académico UAA app.

💡 Welcome to Thesis Seminar!

Class location: Mod 3, classroom 7; office for tutoring sessions; Thesis Seminar 2025 | General | Microsoft Teams

Class schedule: 10:00 AM - 1:00 PM, Monday - Friday

Instructor: Benjamin L. Stewart

Course Description

An integrative theoretical-practical subject aimed at applying the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values developed throughout the curriculum to carry out integration work through research relevant to teaching English as a foreign language. This subject is based on all the subjects in the curriculum.

Course Objective

During the course, the student will develop research relevant to teaching English, integrating knowledge and skills with autonomy, openness to constructive criticism, proactivity, and social and ethical responsibility.

Readings

Crafting a Literature Review for a Thesis Paper

Crafting a Method Section for a Thesis Paper

Crafting a Results and Discussion Section for a Thesis Paper

Units

Unit I: Literature Review for Thesis Seminar

Unit II: Method Section for Thesis Seminar

Unit III: Results and Discussion for Thesis Seminar

Methodology

Each student will conduct an individual research project based on a topic of interest related to language teaching or learning. Students will be guided throughout the research process by participating in weekly tutorial sessions that include progress reports and timely feedback based on where each student is in the research process. Students will also participate in periodic whole-group talks that orient students in what is coming next in the research process. Students will also have an opportunity to conduct a mock presentation that includes feedback from designated tutors and classmates in terms of organization and delivery. Finally, each student will present a 30-minute oral defense with three judges that will include a 10-minute question-and-answer session based on a clear thesis related to language teaching or learning. One of the three judges will be assigned to assess the student’s written thesis as well.

Assessment

Writing process (40%) that includes weekly reflections and tutoring sessions, whole group discussions, and periodic assessments: literature review, method section, and results and discussion section)

Oral defense (20%)

Written thesis (5,000 - 6,000 words) (40%)

Notes:

The minimum passing grade will be 7 (seven). 2.-To be eligible to pass the course, attendance at least 80% of the sessions is required. 3.-It is desirable that the participating teachers answer the course evaluation instrument, the link to which will be available on the educational platform starting January 23. This will allow the Department of Training and Academic Updating to have relevant information for the evaluation and continuous improvement of the course.

Orientation

To get started, review the following:

• Content will be published online using Capacities, which you may access either through your browser or through the Capacities app.

• Review Embracing one’s originality and process in academic writing: A guide for English language learners and ELT Cast 126: How to increase one’s originality score when writing an academic text to see my stance on self-expression and human-generated text. I always come from a place of support when assisting you find your original voice when it comes to self-expression through the written word.

• I often use codes when giving feedback on your writing and will often use these codes to refer to common errors made when writing an academic text: Writing error code list.

• Review the UAA language departmental plagiarism policy 2024.

• Install Ámbito Académico UAA app.

Hello, English language learners! Today, we’re going to explore one of the most interesting and useful aspects of English grammar: conditionals. Conditionals are sentences that express what could happen, what might have happened, or what we wish would happen. They typically consist of an "if" clause (the condition) and a main clause (the result). Let’s break down each type of conditional, understand their forms, meanings, and uses, and provide plenty of examples.

Zero Conditional (General Truths)

Form: If + present simple, present simple

Meaning: Used to talk about general truths, scientific facts, and things that are always true.

Examples:

1. If you heat water to 100 degrees Celsius, it boils.

2. If it rains, the grass gets wet.

3. If you mix red and blue, you get purple.

4. If you don't water plants, they die.

5. If you touch fire, it burns.

First Conditional (Real Present or Future Possibility)

Form: If + present simple, will + base verb

Meaning: Used to talk about real and possible situations in the present or future.

Examples:

1. If it rains tomorrow, we will cancel the picnic.

2. If you study hard, you will pass the exam.

3. If she invites me, I will go to the party.

4. If they leave now, they will catch the train.

5. If you eat too much, you will feel sick.

Second Conditional (Unreal Present or Future)

Form: If + past simple, would + base verb

Meaning: Used to talk about hypothetical or unlikely situations in the present or future.

Examples:

1. If I won the lottery, I would buy a new house.

2. If she were here, she would help us.

3. If they had more time, they would travel more.

4. If I spoke French, I would move to Paris.

5. If we knew the answer, we would tell you.

Third Conditional (Unreal Past)

Form: If + past perfect, would have + past participle

Meaning: Used to talk about hypothetical situations in the past, things that did not happen.

Examples:

1. If I had known about the meeting, I would have attended.

2. If they had left earlier, they would have caught the flight.

3. If she had studied harder, she would have passed the test.

4. If we had taken a taxi, we would have arrived on time.

5. If he had seen the sign, he would have turned right.

Mixed Conditional (Unreal Past and Its Present Result)

Form: If + past perfect, would + base verb

Meaning: Used to talk about a hypothetical situation in the past and its result in the present.

Examples:

1. If I had studied medicine, I would be a doctor now.

2. If they had invested in that company, they would be rich today.

3. If she had moved to New York, she would be living there now.

4. If we had met earlier, we would be friends now.

5. If he had learned to play the piano, he would be a musician now.

Tips for Using Conditionals

1. Pay attention to verb tenses: The tense in the "if" clause and the main clause must match the type of conditional you are using.

2. Understand the meaning: Knowing whether the situation is real, hypothetical, or contrary to past events will help you choose the correct conditional.

3. Practice regularly: Try creating your own conditional sentences to get comfortable with each form.

Practice Time!

Now it’s your turn! Create sentences using each type of conditional based on your own experiences or imagination. Here are a few prompts:

1. Zero Conditional: Write about a scientific fact or general truth.

2. First Conditional: Imagine a plan you have for tomorrow and what might happen.

3. Second Conditional: Think about a dream or wish you have.

4. Third Conditional: Reflect on a past event and how it could have been different.

5. Mixed Conditional: Combine a past event with a present result.

By practicing these, you’ll gain a better understanding of how to use conditionals in everyday conversation. Remember, making mistakes is part of the learning process, so don’t be afraid to experiment.

APA style is a common format for academic writing, especially in the social sciences. To format an academic text in Microsoft Word according to APA, you need to follow these steps:

• Set your page margins to 1 inch on each side by clicking the Layout tab, then Margins > Normal.

• Use one of the Acceptable fonts (APA, 7th edition).

• Enable double-spaced text by clicking the Home tab, then the Line and Paragraph Spacing tool in the Paragraph section, and choosing 2.0 from the menu. Also, make sure there are no extra spaces between paragraphs by clicking the same tool and selecting Remove Space After Paragraph.

• Create a title page with the title of your paper, your name, and your institution by clicking the Insert tab, then Page Break. Center the title, your name, and your institution on separate lines, and use the same font and size as the rest of the paper.

• Use headings to organize your paper into sections and if necessary, sub-sections. APA style has five levels of headings, but you may not need to use all of them. Students studying with me, Benjamin L Stewart, will never need a level 4 or level 5. When writing a five paragraph academic essay will only require a level I. Writing a 5,000 - 6,000-word thesis paper will required two level headings and in some cases three levels. The general format for headings is:

  • Level 1: Centered, Bold, Title Case Heading (main words are capitalized): Text begins as a new paragraph.

  • Level 2: Flush Left, (left-Aligned), Bold, Title Case Heading: Text begins as a new paragraph.

  • Level 3: Flush Left, Bold Italic, Title Case Heading: Text begins as a new paragraph.

  • Level 4: Indented, Bold, Title Case Heading, Ending in a Period: Text begins on the same line and continues as a regular paragraph.

  • Level 5: Indented, Bold Italic, Title Case Heading, Ending in a Period: Text begins on the same line and continues as a regular paragraph.

• The heading style for any of the different level headings listed above should be the same font type and size; the only difference will be that headings are bold - the only text that should be in bold - and italized if a level 3.

• Use parenthetical citations to acknowledge the sources of information, ideas, or quotations that you use in your paper. A parenthetical citation consists of the author’s last name and the year of publication, separated by a comma, and enclosed in parentheses. For example: (Smith, 2020). All citations should be paraphrased with the author's or authors' last name(s), comma, and year of publication. In rare cases, if you are quoting directly from a source, you also need to include the page number after the year, separated by a comma. For example: (Smith, 2020, p. 42). Place the parenthetical citation at the end of the sentence, before the period.

• Create a reference list at the end of your paper, on a new page, by clicking the Insert tab, then Page Break. Type the word References, centered, at the top of the page (level 1 heading), and use the same font and size as the rest of the paper. List all the sources that you cited in your paper, in alphabetical order by the author’s last name, using a hanging indent (aka French indentation) of 0.5 inches. To apply a hanging indent, select the references, click the Layout tab, then the Paragraph tool, and set the Special option to Hanging and the By option to 0.5. The format of each reference entry depends on the type of source, but generally includes the author, date, title, and source information.

• For all paragraphs prior to the References page (except when writing an abstract), include a 0.5 inch indentation by doing the following:

  • Select the text that you want to indent, or click where you want to start typing.

  • Click the Home tab, then the Paragraph tool in the Paragraph section.

  • In the Indentation section, use the drop-down menu under Special to choose First line.

  • Word will automatically set the indentation size to 0.5 inches, which is the correct size for APA style.

  • Click OK at the bottom of the dialog box.

Final formatting tips

Formatting, citations, and references in Word (APA)

Setting up tables and figures in Microsoft Word

Alternative to fixing table of contents

• 💡 Consider this if you are comfortable with copying and maneuvering files.

💡 See also How to format your academic paper in APA style (7th edition) using Microsoft Word.

Source: Publication manual of the APA, 2020, p. 48

When writing a shorter academic text like a five-paragraph essay, usually only one level heading is required: a level one heading that represents the title of the essay and a second level one heading for the references page, called, "References". If your instructor requires more headings, then consider a level II heading to include subsections throughout the text.

When writing longer academic texts like a 5,000 to 6,000-word thesis paper, then usually on three types of headings are required: a level one heading, a level two heading, and a level three heading.

Formatting level one, two, and three headings

💡In many cases, a level I, II, and III will suffice for most papers. Levels one, two, and three follow title case (See Sentence Case vs. Title Case).

• A level one heading is centered to the page, in bold, and uses a (title case heading). The text begins as a new paragraph.

• A level two heading is flush left to the page, in bold, and uses a title case heading. Text begins as a new paragraph.

• A level three heading is flush left to the page, in bold italics, and uses a title case heading. Text begins as a new paragraph.

💡 Always check with your instructor if you feel you need more than three levels of headings.

Crafting effective titles and subheadings for academic papers

Here are a few title options, ranging from more descriptive to slightly more engaging, based on the tutorial you provided:

Option 1 (Descriptive & Straightforward):

• Crafting Effective Titles and Subheadings for Academic Papers

Option 2 (Slightly More Engaging, Keyword-Rich):

• A Guide to Writing Compelling Titles and Subheadings for Research Papers

Option 3 (Using a Colon - Two Part):

• Academic Writing Essentials: Mastering Titles and Subheadings for Clarity and Impact

• Titles and Subheadings: A Comprehensive Guide to Crafting a Clear and Engaging Paper

Option 4 (Focusing on the "How-To"):

• How to Write Effective Titles and Subheadings for Your Research Paper

Option 5 (More direct and brief)

• Writing Effective Titles and Subheadings

My Recommendation and Why:

I'd probably recommend Option 3 ("Academic Writing Essentials: Mastering Titles and Subheadings for Clarity and Impact") or Option 5 ("Writing Effective Titles and Subheadings").

• Option 3 uses the colon structure effectively. "Academic Writing Essentials" is broad and appealing, while the part after the colon provides specific focus and keywords. "Clarity and Impact" highlights the benefits of good titles and subheadings.

• Option 5 is concise, but sacrifices a small amount of detail.

The best choice depends slightly on the intended audience and the overall tone you're aiming for. If it's a very formal academic setting, Option 1 or the first instance of Option 3 might be preferred. If it's a slightly more accessible guide (e.g., for students), Options 2, 4, or 5 could work well. But all of the options are valid and reflect the content accurately.

For those taking Thesis Seminar.

Talking points

• Educational platforms: Capacities and Microsoft Teams

• For those who have a working version of a literature review (e.g., )from Academic Writing).

  • Review research questions to see how they align with potential participants: Situational questions when doing research and Finding participants.

  • Determine where a survey, interview, or focus group is needed to get more information about potential participants - to inform research questions and any changes needed to the literature review.

  • Make necessary changes to literature review.

  • Review Narrowing down a topic, Organizing an effective argument: Methods and examples, & Organizational Patterns - Text Structure

  • Review Unit I Module in Teams: Thesis statement and skeleton outline & Problem Statement.

  • Begin focusing on each evidence sentence in each body paragraph to assure you have enough examples, facts, statistics, etc. that will provide points of comparison when it comes to presenting your findings.

• For those who are beginning a new topic

  • As you are drafting a Problem Statement and Thesis statement and skeleton outline, begin thinking about potential participants (See Finding participants and Situational questions when doing research). Our first discussions in our first few tutoring sessions will be about potential participants who will likely be able to answer your research questions.

  • Review also Narrowing down a topic, Organizing an effective argument: Methods and examples, & Organizational Patterns - Text Structure

  • Review Unit I Module in Teams: Thesis statement and skeleton outline & Problem Statement.

💡 When drafting an academic essay, I advocate paraphrasing ideas because it allows the writer to fit the idea within the context of the text (Publication manual of APA, 2020, p. 270). Also, write paraphrased ideas as parenthetical citations to focus more on the ideas themselves as opposed to the authors. The ideas included in an academic text usually advocate for answers that support (research) questions and a relevant problem of the day. When in doubt, check with your instructor or publication guidelines.

A narrative citation and a parenthetical citation are two different ways of citing sources within a written document. They are commonly used in academic writing, research papers, and other scholarly works. While both methods serve the purpose of acknowledging and crediting the sources used, they differ in their presentation and placement within the text.

Narrative Citation

• A narrative citation involves incorporating the author's name or the title of the source into the text itself. This method integrates the citation smoothly into the sentence structure, providing context and attribution within the narrative flow. Here is an example:

• Original sentence: According to Smith (2019), climate change has a significant impact on biodiversity loss.

• In this example, the author's name, Smith, is mentioned in the narrative, and the publication year (2019) is included in parentheses. The reader can easily identify the source of the information within the sentence itself.

Parenthetical Citation

Preferred method for those taking Thesis Seminar.

• A parenthetical citation, also known as an in-text citation, involves placing the citation information within parentheses at the end of the sentence or passage containing the borrowed information. This method is typically used when the author's name is not mentioned in the narrative, or when there are multiple sources cited within a single sentence. Here is an example:

• Original sentence: Climate change has a significant impact on biodiversity loss (Smith, 2019).

• It is important to note that the specific format and style of citation may vary depending on the citation style guide being used, such as the APA (American Psychological Association), MLA (Modern Language Association), or Chicago style. However, the underlying principles of narrative and parenthetical citations remain consistent across most style guides.

• In this example, the author's name (Smith) and the publication year (2019) are enclosed in parentheses at the end of the sentence. The reader can easily locate the corresponding entry in the reference list or bibliography for more detailed information about the source.

  In summary, narrative citations integrate the source information into the text itself, while parenthetical citations place the information in parentheses at the end of the sentence. Both methods are used to give credit to the original authors and allow readers to locate the sources for further information or verification. The choice between narrative and parenthetical citations depends on the writer's preference, the specific citation style guide, and the context in which the citations are being used.

Avoiding sexist and other biased language in formal writing is crucial for ensuring inclusivity and respect for diverse perspectives. Here are some key ways to achieve this: 1) Awareness - Recognize your own biases: All humans have unconscious biases and 2) Reflect on your own background and the messages you have internalized to identify your biases and potentially blind spots - Identify common biases: Familiarize yourself with common types of bias, such as sexism, racism, ageism, ableism, and homophobia.

Language choices

• Gender-neutral language: Use gender-neutral language instead of assuming gender. Use “they” as a singular pronoun, replace gendered nouns with inclusive terms, and avoid unnecessary gendered modifiers.

• Inclusive nouns and pronouns: Use terms that encompass everyone, such as “people,” “humanity,” “staff,” or “students” instead of gendered or exclusive terms.

• Active voice: Prefer active voice to passive voice, as it highlights the actor and avoids potentially gendered pronouns.

• Focus on merit and abilities: When describing individuals, focus on their skills, qualifications, and contributions rather than physical appearance or gender.

• Avoid stereotypes and generalizations: Do not make assumptions about individuals based on their group affiliation. Avoid language that reinforces negative stereotypes about any group.

• “When referring to individuals whose identified pronouns are not known or when the gender of the generic or hypothetical person is irrelevant within the context, use the singular ´they´ to avoid making assumptions about an individual’s gender; avoid using combinations such as ´he or she´ and ´(s)he´ as alternatives to the singular ´they´” (Publication Manual of the APA, 2020, p. 140).

Additional tips

• Use respectful language: Avoid offensive or discriminatory language, even if it’s not explicitly targeting a specific group.

• Consult references: Use style guides and dictionaries that offer guidance on inclusive language.

• Read critically: Review your writing with a critical eye, searching for potential biases and opportunities for improvement.

• Seek feedback: Get feedback from diverse readers who can point out any unintentional biases in your writing.

Remember: Avoiding biased language is a continuous process. It requires both awareness and practice. By implementing these tips and fostering a critical mindset, you can write formal texts that are inclusive and respectful of all individuals and groups.

Here are some resources for further learning:

• APA Style Guide:

• National Center for Women & Information Technology:

• GLAAD Media Reference Guide

Active voice and passive voice are two ways to structure a sentence with different implications for emphasis and clarity. In academic writing, active voice is preferred for its directness and focus on the doer of the action.

Active Voice:

• Subject performs the action: “The researchers conducted the experiment.”

• Emphasis on the subject: “We argue that the findings support the hypothesis.”

• Conciseness: Often shorter than passive voice sentences.

Passive Voice:

• Action is performed on the subject: “The experiment was conducted by the researchers.”

• Emphasis on the action or object: “The hypothesis was supported by the findings.”

• Wordiness: Often longer than active voice sentences.

Why Active Voice is Preferred in Academic Writing:

• Clarity: Active voice sentences are typically clearer and easier to understand, as the subject and its action are readily identified.

• Directness: Active voice makes your writing sound more assertive and engaging, conveying authority and ownership of your ideas.

• Conciseness: Active voice sentences are often shorter and more to the point, improving the flow and readability of your text.

• Focus on agency: Academic writing emphasizes critical thinking and analysis. Active voice helps highlight the actors and agents involved in research and discussions.

Exceptions to the Rule:

While active voice is generally preferred, there are some instances where passive voice might be appropriate:

• Emphasis on the action or object: When the focus is on the action itself rather than the doer, passive voice can be effective. For example, “The data was analyzed using statistical software.”

• When the subject is unknown or unimportant: If the subject is unclear or irrelevant, passive voice can be a suitable option. For example, “The study was approved by the ethics committee.”

• Variety: To avoid monotony, it is okay to occasionally use passive voice for stylistic variation. However, ensure it does not obscure meaning or weaken the overall impact of your writing.

Remember: The choice between active and passive voice depends on the context and your intentions. When in doubt, opt for an active voice for clarity, directness, and a more effective delivery of your academic ideas.

Bonus Tip: Use powerful verbs and strong sentence structures to further enhance the impact of your active voice writing.

Figurative language refers to a wide range of literary devices and techniques.

1. Similes vs. Metaphors:

1. Simile: A simile compares two different things using the words “like” or “as”. Example: “Her smile was as bright as the sun.”

2. Metaphor: A metaphor also compares two different things but does so directly, without using “like” or “as”. Example: “Time is a thief.”

2. Personification vs. Anthropomorphism:

1. Personification: Assigning human characteristics to non-human entities or inanimate objects. Example: “The wind whispered through the trees.”

2. Anthropomorphism: Attributing human characteristics to animals or non-human beings, often in a narrative context. Example: In “Animal Farm,” the animals talk and behave like humans.

3. Onomatopoeia: Words that imitate the sound they represent. Example: “The bees buzzed in the garden.”

4. Oxymoron: A figure of speech that combines contradictory terms. Example: “Bittersweet.”

5. Hyperbole: Exaggerated statements not meant to be taken literally. Example: “I’m so hungry I could eat a horse.”

6. Allusion: An indirect reference to a person, place, thing, or idea of historical, cultural, literary, or political significance. Example: “He was a real Romeo with the ladies.”

7. Idiom: A phrase or expression whose meaning cannot be understood from the individual meanings of its elements. Example: “It’s raining cats and dogs.”

8. Imagery: Descriptive language that appeals to the senses. Example: “The golden, crispy leaves crunched underfoot.”

9. Symbolism: Using symbols to represent ideas or qualities. Example: In literature, a dove often symbolizes peace.

10. Alliteration: Repetition of the same sound at the beginning of adjacent or intricately connected words. Example: “Susy sells seashells by the seashore.”

11. Assonance: Repetition of vowel sounds within words close to each other. Example: “The light of the fire is a sight.”

12. Consonance: Repetition of consonant sounds, typically at the end of words. Example: “The ship has sailed to the far off shores.”

13. Metonymy: Substituting the name of an attribute or feature for the name of the thing itself. Example: “The White House announced new policies.”

14. Synecdoche: A figure of speech in which a part represents the whole, or the whole for a part. Example: “All hands on deck.”

15. Irony: Expressing meaning by using language that typically signifies the opposite, often for humorous or emphatic effect. Example: A fire station burns down.

16. Sarcasm: The use of irony to mock or convey contempt. Example: “Great, another rainy day,” said when someone is disappointed about the weather.

17. Litotes: An understatement in which the negative of its contrary expresses an affirmative. Example: “He’s not the worst singer.”

18. Pun: A joke exploiting the different possible meanings of a word. Example: “I used to be a baker, but I couldn’t make enough dough.”

19. Anaphora: The repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses. Example: “Every day, every night, in every way, I am getting better.”

20. Tautology: A statement that repeats itself redundantly and unnecessarily. Example: “Free gift.”

21. Understatement: Presenting something as being smaller or less important than it actually is. Example: “It’s just a scratch,” referring to a large dent on a car.

Takeaway

The opposite of figurative language is literal language, which is language with little-to-no imagination or exaggeration. Creative writing employs rich examples of figurative language to communicate better meaning while. When writing poetry, for instance, stick to (a metaphor) primarily figurative language.😀

Writing an academic text is best when language is literal

My suggestion would be to find examples of each of the following literary devices listed above and begin to practice matching each to their respective type: simile, metaphor, personification, onomatopoeia, oxymoron, hyperbole, allusion, idiom, imagery, symbolism, alliteration, assonance, consonance, metonymy, synecdoche, irony, sarcasm, litotes, pun, anaphora, tautology, and understatement.

Emphasis or emphatic writing

💡 See also (In)Appropriate language when writing an academic text.

Why arrange words for emphasis in formal writing?

In formal writing, clarity and persuasion are paramount. While factual accuracy reigns supreme, the effective delivery of your message can make all the difference. Arranging words for emphasis allows you to highlight key points, guide the reader’s attention, and strengthen your arguments. A strategically crafted sentence can resonate far more than a bland statement.

Techniques for emphasis

Effective subjects and verbs:

• Active Voice: Opt for active voice to place the subject, the doer of the action, at the sentence’s forefront. This imbues the subject with agency and emphasizes its role. (“The research conclusively demonstrates…” vs. “It is conclusively demonstrated by the research…”)

• Strong Verbs: Choose verbs that precisely and powerfully convey the action. A weak verb like “is” can be replaced with a more nuanced option (“suggests,” “reveals,” “establishes”). See weak verbs.

• Specificity: Use specific nouns and verbs instead of vague generalizations. This adds concreteness and lends weight to your points. (“The economic downturn…” vs. “Things are not good with the economy…”)

Unemphatic (Emphatic)

• was influential (influenced)

• is a glorification (glorifies)

• have a preference (prefer)

• had the appearance (appeared, seemed)

• made a claim (claimed)

Sentence beginnings and endings:

• Opening Strong: Start your sentence with the most crucial information. The beginning grabs the reader’s attention, so prioritize the key element there. (“Despite initial skepticism, the project proved successful…”)

• Climax or Conclusion: Place the most important idea at the end of the sentence to leave a lasting impression. This creates a sense of closure and emphasizes the concluding point. (“The data, therefore, irrefutably points to a need for reform.”)

• Coordination and subordination

• Coordination for Parallelism: Use coordinating conjunctions (and, or, but, etc.) to create parallel sentence structures. This adds rhythm and emphasizes the importance of each element equally. (“The findings are both significant and far-reaching.”)

• Subordination for Emphasis: A Subordinating (Adverbial) Clause can highlight the main idea by providing supporting details or contrasting information. The main clause becomes the focal point in relation to the dependent clause. (“While some challenges remain, the overall outlook is positive.”)

• Additional tips

• Figurative Language: Carefully chosen metaphors, similes, and personification can inject vividness and draw attention to crucial points. However, use them sparingly when writing a formal text or when maintaining a formal tone.

• Repetition: Repeating key words or phrases can reinforce their importance and create a sense of urgency.

• Questions: Rhetorical questions can prompt reader reflection and emphasize the significance of a topic.

Remember, effective word arrangement is an art, not a science. Experiment, refine, and find the approach that best suits your message and writing style. By strategically placing words, you can elevate your formal writing from merely informative to truly impactful.

Parallelism

What is parallelism?

Parallelism is the repetition of similar grammatical structures in a sentence or paragraph. It is a powerful tool that can be used to make your writing more concise, clear, and emphatic.

Parallelism can occur in a variety of ways: - Using the same verb tense for all items in a series. For example: - I like to swim, run, and bike. - Using the same pronoun case for all items in a series. For example: - The cat, dog, and bird are all my pets. - Using the same adjective form for all items in a series. For example: - The sky is blue, the grass is green, and the flowers are red. - Using the same adverb form for all items in a series. For example: - I quickly ran to the store, bought the milk, and returned home. - To avoid parallelism, it is important to make sure that all items in a series have the same grammatical structure. You can also check your writing for parallelism by reading it aloud. If you come across a series of items that do not have the same grammatical structure, you may need to revise your sentence. ## Tips for avoiding parallelism - - Make sure all items in a series have the same grammatical structure. - Read your writing aloud to check for parallelism. - Use a grammar checker to help you identify parallelism. - Parallelism can make your writing sound choppy and unprofessional. By following these tips, you can avoid parallelism and write clear, concise sentences. ## Examples of parallelism - I like to read, write, and sing. - The dog ran quickly, the cat jumped high, and the bird flew far. - The sky is blue, the grass is green, and the flowers are red. - I quickly ran to the store, bought the milk, and returned home. ## Examples of non-parallelism - I like to read, write, and sing songs. - The dog ran quickly, the cat jumped high, and the bird flew. - The sky is blue, the grass is green, and the flowers are beautiful. - I quickly ran to the store, bought the milk, and then went home.

As you can see, parallelism can make your writing more concise, clear, and emphatic. By using parallelism in your writing, you can improve your communication skills and make your writing more effective.

Variety and details

Sentences can vary between 10 to forty words, while usually averaging between 15-25. If too many sentences are too long, main ideas don’t stand out; if too many sentences are too short, ideas may seem equally important (The Little Brown Compact Handbook: Jane E. Aaron: 9780321143242: Amazon.com: Books). Thus, vary the length of sentences throughout your text.

To extend shorter sentences, consider adding phrases (See Types Of Phrases.), coordination, and subordination (See Types Of Clauses.). Also, consider modifying the beginning of the sentence.

Completeness

Sentence Fragment

A sentence fragment is a group of words that looks like a sentence, but it is not a complete sentence because it lacks a subject, a verb, or a complete thought. Sentence fragments can occur in a variety of ways, including:

Sentence fragments without a subject (i.e., incomplete sentences):

• Went to the store and bought some milk.

• Barking loudly at the mailman.

• Is a beautiful day today.

• Loves to play soccer.

• Were late for the meeting.

Sentence fragments without a verb phrase

• The girl with the red dress (was dancing).

• A book about ancient history (that I borrowed from the library).

• In the middle of the night (he heard a strange noise).

• Because of the storm (we had to cancel our plans).

• The fastest runner in the school (who won the race).

To avoid sentence fragments, it is important to make sure that every group of words (i.e., clause) you write has a subject, a verb, and a complete thought. You can also check your writing for sentence fragments by reading it aloud. If you come across a group of words that does not sound like a complete sentence, it is a sentence fragment.

Here are some tips for avoiding sentence fragments: - Make sure every group of words has a subject and a verb. - Make sure every group of words expresses a complete thought. - Read your writing aloud to check for sentence fragments. - Use a grammar checker to help you identify sentence fragments.

Sentence fragments can make your writing sound choppy and unprofessional. By following these tips, you can avoid sentence fragments and write clear, concise sentences.

The error code “FRAG” refers to sentence fragments and is considered a more serious type of writing error. Also, it’s called a “sentence fragment”, fragments occur at the clause level: main clause, noun clause functioning as a subject or object, relative (adjective) clauses, and subordinating (adverbial) clauses. Refer to the Writing Errors Code List.

Conciseness

Conciseness in formal academic writing refers to expressing your ideas with the fewest words possible while maintaining clarity and precision. It eliminates unnecessary clutter and focuses on the essential information, making your writing more impactful and easier to understand.

Here are 20 examples of wordy phrases and their concise counterparts:

Wordy (Concise)

• In the event that… (If…)

• It is important to note that… (Note that…) - Avoid the imperative when writing an academic text.

• There is a need for further research into… (More research is needed on…)

• It has been observed that… (We observe that…)

• In the process of doing something… (While doing something…)

• On the basis of the evidence presented… (Based on the evidence…)

• For the purpose of clarifying… (To clarify…)

• As a consequence of… (Consequently…)

• With the intention of… (To…)

• It would appear that… (It seems that…)

• There is a general tendency towards… (Generally, we see a…) - In most cases, it’s best to stay in the third person.

• It is not possible to deny that… (Undeniably…) - Avoid subjectivity when writing a formal text.

• In a similar fashion to… (Similarly…)

• To a certain extent… (To some extent…)

• One might argue that… (Arguably…)

• The aforementioned findings… (These findings…)

• In spite of the fact that… (Though…)

• The primary reason for… (The main reason for…)

• A significant number of… (Many…)

• In the conclusion… (In conclusion…)

Remember, conciseness does not mean sacrificing depth or complexity. Aim for sentences that are clear, precise, and efficient in conveying your meaning. By applying these tips and actively seeking wordy phrases, you can significantly improve the tightness and readability of your formal academic writing.

Words and phrases to consider and avoid when writing an academic text

When writing an academic text, it is important to consider using language that is clear, precise, and appropriate for the audience. Here are some words and phrases to consider and avoid: ## Words and Phrases to Consider

• Precise Terminology: Use specific and precise terminology relevant to the field of study.

• Clear and consistent Definitions: Clearly define any technical terms or concepts that might be unfamiliar to the reader, but for those taking Thesis Seminar or writing a five-paragraph essay, avoid drafting complete paragraphs with only definitions. Instead, define terms when necessary, within the context of a Topic sentence. Also, be consistent when certain terms: activities, tasks, techniques, strategies, methods, approaches, etc.

• Logical Connectors: Use logical connectors such as “therefore,” “however,” and “moreover” to connect ideas and improve coherence. See also Sentence Connectors by Category.

• Academic Language: Utilize formal and academic language to convey authority and credibility.

• Citations and References: Include proper citations and references to support your arguments and give credit to original sources. (See APA Guide.) ## Words and Phrases to Avoid

• Personal pronouns: You should avoid using “I”, “me”, “my”, “you”, “your”, or “we” in academic writing, as they make your arguments sound subjective and personal. Instead, you should use impersonal expressions such as “one”, “the author”, “the researcher”, or “this paper”.

• Clichés: Clichés are overused expressions that lack originality and impact. They are not suitable for academic writing, as they make your writing sound informal and vague. Examples of clichés are “in this day and age”, “the bottom line”, “a dime a dozen”, or “at the end of the day”. You should avoid clichés and use more specific and accurate terms instead.

• Contractions and abbreviations: Contractions are shortened forms of words, such as “isn’t”, “can’t”, “doesn’t”, or “would’ve”. You should avoid contractions and abbreviations in academic writing, as they make your writing sound informal and colloquial. You should write out the full words or phrases instead, such as “is not”, “cannot”, “does not”, “would have”, “for example”, “that is”, “and so on”, or “as soon as possible”. Abbreviations are shortened forms of words or phrases, such as “e.g.”, “i.e.”, “etc.”, or “ASAP”. Abbreviations of technical terms may be used sparingly if they are written out first, then abbreviated thereafter. For example, English language learner (ELL); then, when the term is used again, use, “ELL”. Notice in this example that “language learner” is all in lowercase.

• Weak modifiers and overused adverbs: Weak modifiers are words that add little or no meaning to your sentences, such as “very”, “really”, “quite”, or “basically”. Overused adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, but are used too frequently or unnecessarily, such as “clearly”, “obviously”, “significantly”, or “actually”. You should avoid weak modifiers and overused adverbs in academic writing, as they make your writing sound weak and redundant. You should use stronger and more precise words instead or provide evidence to support your claims.

• Idioms: Idioms are expressions that have a figurative meaning that is different from their literal meaning, such as “break a leg”, “hit the nail on the head”, “spill the beans”, or “bite the bullet”. You should avoid idioms in academic writing, as they make your writing sound informal and ambiguous. You should use literal and unambiguous language instead or explain the meaning of the idiom if you must use it.

• Subjective language: Minimize the use of subjective language such as “I believe”, “in my opinion”, “clearly”, etc. Stay in the third person.

• Exaggerations: Avoid exaggerated or absolute statements without proper evidence or support. Avoid phrases like, “always”, “never”, “all”, “everyone”, “no one”, “it’s a fact”, “it is true” etc.

• Vague expressions: Steer clear of vague expressions and ambiguous terms that may lead to confusion.

Remember, the goal of academic writing is to present information in a clear, objective, and well-supported manner.

Boosting

When writing an academic (formal) text, avoid intensifiers - see Understanding Intensifiers.

Boosting is a rhetorical device used to express confidence in a claim or statement. It is often (over)used in academic writing but can be used in any type of writing. Boosters are words or phrases that add emphasis or intensity to a statement. Some common boosters that should be avoided when writing an academic text include certainly, indeed, always, undoubtedly, in fact, clearly, actually, obviously, know, prove, conclusively, definitely, evidently, etc.

Boosters can add weight to an argument, to make a statement more persuasive, or to simply express confidence in a claim. However, use boosters sparingly (if at all), as they can make your writing sound arrogant or boastful.

Here are some examples of how boosters can be used in writing (which typically should be avoided when writing an academic text):

• “The evidence clearly (or obviously, etc.) shows that climate change is real.”

• “I know for a fact that this is the best way to do it.”

• “This is undoubtedly the most important decision you will ever make.” When writing an academic text try to avoid boosting altogether unless the claim where the boosting occurs comes from a study (i.e., requiring a citation). In creative writing (poetry, short stories, novels, etc.) boosting is common and perfectly acceptable.

• Avoid very: “ For English language teachers, it is very important to implement the correct strategies in the classroom in order to ensure the learning of each student.”

• Absolutes or exaggerations: never, always, everyone, no one, it is true…, it is a fact…, it is a perfect way…, without a doubt…, etc.

• Subjective phrasing: It is important, it is vital, it is essential, it is crucial, etc. - Demonstratives: this, that, these those*

Here are some tips for avoiding overuse of boosters in your writing: - Read your work aloud to yourself. This will help you to identify any areas where you are using too many boosters. - Ask a friend or colleague to read your work and give you feedback. - Get feedback from a writing tutor or instructor.

By following these tips, you can avoid overuse of boosters and improve the clarity and persuasiveness of your writing.

💡 The error code “BH” (See Writing Errors Code List.) refers to either boosting or hedging too much. When writing an academic text, the writer must balance between these two extremes: boosting which results in overgeneralizing claims and hedging which can make the writer sound less assertive.

Hedging

Hedging is a linguistic technique used in writing and speech to express caution or uncertainty, to soften statements, and to demonstrate politeness or diplomacy. It is particularly common in academic and professional contexts, where acknowledging the complexity of a topic or the limits of one’s findings is important. Here is a detailed look at hedging and how to use it effectively:

When to Use Hedging

1. Presenting New Ideas or Theories: When suggesting ideas that are not yet widely accepted or are innovative.

2. Discussing Complex or Controversial Topics: Where there are multiple viewpoints, or the evidence is not conclusive.

3. Interpreting Results: Particularly in research, where findings may not be definitive.

4. Writing in Scientific or Academic Contexts: To show that you are considering all possibilities and not overgeneralizing.

5. Demonstrating Politeness or Diplomacy: In professional communication, to avoid coming across as too direct or assertive.

How to Use Hedging

1. Use of Modal Verbs: Words like “might,” “could,” “may,” and “would” suggest possibility rather than certainty.

2. Employing Tentative Language: Phrases like “it seems that,” “it is possible that,” or “there appears to be” indicate uncertainty.

3. Incorporating Softening Adverbs: Words like “probably,” “perhaps,” “generally,” and “mostly” can soften a claim.

4. Qualifying Statements: Phrases like “to some extent,” “in some cases,” or “to a certain degree” indicate that a statement is not absolute.

5. Using Passive Voice: Can sometimes be used to depersonalize statements and reduce the emphasis on the actor.

Examples of Hedging

1. Modal Verbs:

1. Without Hedging: “This treatment eliminates the symptoms.”

2. With Hedging: “This treatment may reduce the symptoms.”

2. Tentative Language:

1. Without Hedging: “All experts agree that climate change is accelerating.”

2. With Hedging: “Most experts seem to agree that climate change is likely accelerating.”

3. Softening Adverbs:

1. Without Hedging: “Regular exercise significantly improves mental health.”

2. With Hedging: “Regular exercise probably improves mental health.”

4. Qualifying Statements:

1. Without Hedging: “Technology improves communication.”

2. With Hedging: “Technology can improve communication to some extent.”

5. Using Passive Voice:

1. Without Hedging: “Our study proves the theory.”

2. With Hedging: “The theory is supported by the findings of our study.”

Conclusion

Hedging is a useful tool for writers who wish to convey their ideas accurately while acknowledging the complexity of their subject or the limitations of their knowledge. By using hedging appropriately, writers can make their writing more nuanced, credible, and respectful of different perspectives. It’s important, however, not to overuse hedging, as it can make statements overly vague or imply a lack of confidence in your own work. Balance is key.

Podcast episode

When writing a thesis paper, there are three main types of paragraphs: introductory, body, and conclusion paragraphs. An introductory paragraph sets the stage with a thesis statement, while body paragraphs develop the main ideas with evidence and analysis. Conclusion paragraphs summarize the thesis and main points. In a five-paragraph essay, these types are used, except for transitional paragraphs, which are specific to longer papers. Each paragraph type plays a crucial role in structuring the thesis and ensuring clarity and coherence in the argument.

The MEAL plan (Main idea, Evidence, Analysis, Linking) is a structured approach to writing effective body paragraphs. It begins with a clear topic sentence that introduces the main idea, followed by evidence sentences that provide factual support. Analysis sentences interpret the evidence, explaining its relevance to the main idea. Finally, linking sentences transition to the next paragraph or summarize the current one. This method ensures that each paragraph is cohesive and contributes to the overall argument of the thesis.

Paragraph Types

When writing a thesis paper, there are three distinct types of paragraphs to consider: an Introductory Paragraph, a body paragraph, a Transitional Paragraph, and a Conclusion Paragraph. When writing a typical five-paragraph essay, the same types of paragraphs apply except for the transitional paragraph. An introductory paragraph, transitional paragraph, and conclusion paragraph all include a thesis statement or the main idea of the entire thesis.

MEAL plan explained

Writing effective evidence sentences within a body paragraph using the MEAL plan (Main idea, Evidence, Analysis, Linking) involves several key steps. The MEAL plan is a structured approach to constructing paragraphs that clearly communicate your arguments and analysis. Let's break down how to write good evidence sentences.

Body Paragraph (BP) Development

Main idea (topic sentence)

• Purpose: Introduces the central idea or argument of the paragraph.

• Tip: Make it clear and direct, setting up what the paragraph will discuss.

Main Idea (Original idea-no citation): When developing a body paragraph (BP), each sentence serves a particular purpose. A BP typically begins with the main idea of the paragraph, called, the topic sentence. A reader should get the gist of the paragraph's meaning by reading only the topic sentence. It's common for English language learning writers to find it challenging to develop a topic sentence to begin each BP. Sometimes a topic sentence can be determined before developing the BP, while other times, the topic sentence is unclear until the entire BP has been written. Either way, a topic sentence should begin each BP and express clearly the one idea (or A Claim; See Toulmin Method in Organizing an effective argument: Methods and examples.

When developing a topic sentence (the main idea of the BP), there are a few things to keep in mind. 1) Try to avoid using Copula verbs, the most common being the verb "to be". As stated earlier, the topic sentence is a claim, a position, an assertion, a proposition, an opinion, etc. that represents one idea. Avoid expressing facts as a topic sentence. 2) A topic sentence should not be too general nor too specific. A topic sentence should be more specific than the thesis statement and section title (level II heading) and more general than the evidence sentences within the paragraph that express examples, details, facts, statistics, etc. To make a topic sentence more specific add prepositional phrases, relative (adjective) clauses, and subordinating (adverbial) clauses. 3) Avoid using personal pronouns in the topic sentence and instead (re)state its antecedent (i.e., the noun the personal pronoun represents). 4) Avoid questions and imperatives when writing a topic sentence. As a general rule, avoid all rhetorical questions throughout your text with the exception of perhaps an essential question in the Introductory Paragraph. 5) Avoid transitions to begin a topic sentence: introductory phrases, sentence connectors, and beginning a sentence with a subordinating clause.

Evidence sentence

Purpose: Provide factual details, data, examples, quotations, or paraphrased information to support the main idea.

• How to Write Good Evidence Sentences:

• Relevance: Ensure that the evidence directly supports the main idea of the paragraph.

• Credibility: Use evidence from credible and authoritative sources.

• Specificity: Choose evidence that is specific and detailed to make a compelling case.

• Integration: Introduce evidence in a way that flows naturally from the main idea. Use phrases like "For instance," "According to [source]," or "A study by [researcher] found that..."

• Balance: Provide enough evidence to be convincing but avoid overloading the paragraph with too many details.

• Citation: Always give proper credit to the original sources of your evidence, following the appropriate citation style.

Evidence (Not an original idea: citation required): When developing a literature review, the evidence (sentences) will be the citations used to support the writer's original ideas. When developing the results and discussion section of a paper, the evidence will be the findings that result from having analyzed collected data. A good rule of thumb is to present the evidence immediately after the main idea of the paragraph (i.e., the topic sentence); that is, the second sentence of the BP. After presenting the first piece of evidence in a BP, then it's at the discretion of the writer how evidence sentences and analysis sentences are to be stated.

Analysis sentence

• Purpose: Interpret, explain, or analyze the evidence provided.

• Tip: Show how the evidence supports your main idea, making connections that might not be immediately obvious to the reader.

Analysis (Original idea-no citation): The role of an analysis sentence is to connect the evidence to the main idea of the BP. As the writer, ask yourself the following:

1. What is the importance of the evidence as it relates to the topic sentence (main idea of the paragraph)?

2. What does the evidence mean to the reader of your text?

3. How do you as the writer interpret the evidence as it relates to the main idea?

4. How should the reader interpret the evidence in lieu of the main idea from the topic sentence?

Think of the analysis sentences as a comment, explanation, compare-and-contrast, synthesis, etc., using the writer's critical thinking skills to interpret and express the point of the evidence as it relates to the main idea of the BP. Analysis sentences can also be used to connect ideas to other parts of the thesis paper that have already been discussed. It's the writer's responsibility to express why the evidence relates back to the main idea. An analysis sentence should always come after the evidence it is mentioning. Stated another way, evidence sentences should always precede an analysis sentence.

Linking (or summarizing) sentence

• Purpose: Transition to the next idea or paragraph.

• Tip: Can reflect on the overall argument, connect to the next paragraph's main idea, or provide a conclusion to the current paragraph.

Link (Original idea-no citation): The linking sentence connects the main idea of the current paragraph (i.e., topic sentence) with the main idea of the next body paragraph and should be the last sentence of the BP. Properly including linking sentences provides flow and connects ideas throughout the section. For this reason, it's recommended to avoid transitions to begin topic sentences as stated earlier. As an alternative, the final sentence of a BP could also serve as a summary, especially in cases when a BP concludes a section.

Example of a MEAL Plan Paragraph:

1. Main Idea: Increasing physical activity in daily routines can significantly improve mental health.

2. Evidence: A 2020 study by the University of Oxford found that participants who engaged in moderate to vigorous physical activity for at least 150 minutes per week reported a 30% decrease in symptoms of depression. Additionally, a survey conducted by the World Health Organization revealed that regular physical activity enhances cognitive function and reduces anxiety.

3. Analysis: These findings highlight the dual benefits of physical exercise, not only in alleviating depressive symptoms but also in enhancing cognitive abilities and managing anxiety. The reduction in depressive symptoms can be attributed to the release of endorphins during exercise, known for their mood-boosting properties.

4. Linking: Understanding the multifaceted benefits of physical activity can guide public health policies aimed at improving mental health outcomes.

In summary, effective evidence sentences are integral to supporting the main idea in your paragraph. They should be relevant, credible, specific, well-integrated, balanced, and properly cited. The MEAL plan provides a structured way to organize your paragraph, ensuring that your argument is presented clearly and persuasively.

MEAL Plan Coherence

Since each sentence within a body paragraph serves a purpose when the sentence is stated can be the difference between a coherent and incoherent paragraph. Here are a few examples of coherent and incoherent body paragraphs based on the order of the sentences (* indicates an incoherent body paragraph). Note that an incoherent body paragraph can also result from having a balance between evidence and analysis sentences (i.e., not having too much evidence with little analysis or vice versa).

MEEAAL

*MEEEEAL Not ok

MEEAAAL

*EMEAL Not ok

*MEAAAL Not ok

MEEAEAL

MEAEAL

*MEAEL Not ok

*MEAELA Not ok

Transitions within Body Paragraphs

Avoid using any one type of transition (e.g., sentence connectors). Instead, mix it up a bit and include @introductory phrases Introductory Phrases and Subordinating clauses to being sentences within a paragraph. Avoid transitions to begin a paragraph, however.

Paragraph Length

Think of paragraph length in terms of sentences first. Typically, BPs with five-eight well-constructed sentences will have a proper length. If a paragraph has 225 words or more then, it might be necessary to separate it into two or more paragraphs.

Links

Compare how to write a body paragraph with how to write an introduction paragraph and conclusion paragraph. Generally, it’s best to develop first your body paragraphs (beginning with the easiest one), then the introduction and conclusion paragraphs. The introduction paragraph (after the hook and before the thesis statement) is dedicated to the context of the problem (refer to the Problem Statement).

• YouTube Search

• Thompson Writing Program handout

• Excelsior Online Writing Lab

• KSU Writing Center

• Capella University

• Walden University

• University of Hull

I enjoyed ’s insight in Bridging the theory & practice divide in English classrooms, and felt I would follow suit. I appreciate the need to bridge theory and practice and agree that this narrative should continue if teachers seek to improve the educative experience for each learner.

Theory & Practice

I agree that the connection between theory and practice isn’t just an academic exercise but rather a necessary distinction that comes together when understanding what success in the classroom looks like. When teaching English as an additional language, several theories relate directly to the English language learning classroom experience (i.e., natural method, direct method, lexical approach, suggestopedia, etc.) while others theories relate more broadly to general education (i.e., scaffolding, understanding by design, etc.). When I reflect on my day-to-day teaching practice, I frame most of what my learners and I do through Wiggins and McTighe’s (2005) understanding by design: six facets of understanding, G.R.A.S.P.S. Framework for designing performance tasks, backward design, etc.

Instead of defining participation between interpretation, representation, and communication, I would view it more in terms of the six facets (or categories) of understanding: explain, interpret, apply, perspective, empathy, and self-knowledge.

Towards Meaningful Participation

I define “meaningful” participation as any educative experience that is meaningful, relevant, and engaging for the learner. An experience is meaningful when it’s likely to be valuable to the learner at some point in the future (e.g., being able to change a tire, etc.). An experience is relevant if it is not only meaningful but also provides value based on the learner’s determined goals and objectives (e.g., an instrumental music major learns how to play the brass instruments, etc.). An experience is engaging when the environment motivates students to interact with course content, authentic content, and other individuals given some authentic purpose or goal.

To this end, the following questions are those that I typically refer to throughout the semester as I work towards active participation that is meaningful, relevant, and engaging for the learner:

1. How can I plan performance tasks (i.e., educative experiences, etc.) that link the learning sequence to the desired results?

2. How can I design performance tasks that allow learners to explain, interpret, apply, have perspective, empathy, and self-knowledge throughout the semester?

3. How can I design performance tasks that integrate content (i.e., knowledge and understandings) and language: content and language integrated learning (CLIL).

Within the context of each of the three questions above, additional decisions I consider that relate to curriculum, assessment, and instruction include the following (S.C.H.O.O.L.):

• Scalability: Any processes and technologies used by my learners and me should provide efficiency and effectiveness at scale. I should not work twice as hard to teach two students as I do to teach one student. Ideally, a class of 100 students should get just as much value from the classroom as if I were teaching only one student.

• The Cs: Creativity, collaboration, cooperation, comparisons, and community should remain at the forefront of any educative experience.

• Hybrid environments: Combining in-person experiences with online experiences allows learners various entry points to the educative experience.

• Openness: Openness or transparency applies to students having authentic audiences and support throughout the learning experience while maintaining adequate protections to privacy, choice, and voice.

• Ongoing: The educative experience and any outcomes should be a continual work in process in that learning never just ends once the assignment is over.

• Learning: Learning trumps teaching - just a reminder that all educational stakeholders should share a common goal in improving what learners know, understand, and are able to do.

Students as Knowledge Producers Communicators

As instructors, we should guide the learner in becoming a more effective, efficient, and engaging communicator and help the learner discern when others are or are not being good communicators. Learners should understand how and why they communicate is often more important than what they produce when communicating. Being a knowledge producer should pair up with the overall purpose and ways of communicating coupled with the process and product(s) that result from having completed the (authentic) communicative event.

What do you think?

Reflecting on one’s teaching practice in terms of theory reveals one’s educational philosophy. Have you ever been asked, “Why do you do what you do in the classroom?” or “Why are the learners doing what they are doing in the classroom?” In my case, my answer would be based on what I’ve mentioned above. In your case, how have you answered this question? How would you answer this question?